Journal of the American College of Surgeons
Volume 200, Issue 5 , Pages 648-669 , May 2005

Changes in the Management of Injuries to the Liver and Spleen

Presented at the American College of Surgeons 90th Annual Clinical Congress, New Orleans, LA, October 2004.

  • J. David Richardson, MD (FACS)

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence address: J David Richardson, MD, FACS, Department of Surgery, University of Louisville, 550 South Jackson Street, Louisville, KY 40292.

Received 26 October 2004 ,Accepted 2 November 2004.

References 

  1. Papen GW , Mikal S . Liver trauma . Review Gastroenter . 1950;17:633–642
  2. Shedden WM , Johnston F . Trauma rupture of the liver . N Engl J Med . 1935;213:961–965
  3. Frantz VK , Clarke HT , Lattes R . Hemostasis with absorbable gauze (oxidized cellulose) . Ann Surg . 1943;118:116–126
  4. Martin JD . Wounds of the liver . Ann Surg . 1947;125:756–767
  5. Boone DC , Federle M , Billiar TC , et al.   Evolution of management of major hepatic trauma (identification of patterns of injury) . J Trauma . 1995;39:344–350
  6. Pilcher LS . Massive rupture of the liver . Ann Surg . 1942;116:827–832
  7. Babcock WW . Temporary occlusion of the portal vein and hepatic artery . Ann Surg . 1942;116:853–856
  8. Krieg EC . Hepatic trauma . Arch Surg . 1936;32:902–914
  9. Robertson DE , Graham RR . Rupture of the liver without tear of the capsule . Ann Surg . 1933;98:899–916
  10. Branch CD . Injury of the liver . Ann Surg . 1938;107:475–477
  11. Christopher F . Rupture of the liver . Ann Surg . 1936;103:461–468
  12. Sparkman RS , Fogelman MJ . Wounds of the liver . Ann Surg . 1954;138:690–703
  13. Amerson JR , Blair HD . Traumatic liver injuries . Am Surg . 1959;25:648–653
  14. Crosthwait RW , Allen JE , Murga F , et al.   The surgical management of 640 consecutive liver injuries in civilian practice . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1962;115:650–654
  15. Wang CC , Robbins LL . Roentgenologic diagnosis of ruptured spleen . N Engl J Med . 1956;254:445–449
  16. Root HD , Hauser LW , McKinley CR , et al.   Diagnostic peritoneal lavage . Surgery . 1965;57:633–639
  17. Meredith JW , Trunkey DD . CT scanning in acute abdominal injuries . Surg Clin North Am . 1988;68:255–268
  18. Federle MP , Jeffrey RB . Hemoperitoneum studied by computed tomography . Radiology . 1983;148:187–192
  19. Federle MP , Goldberg HI , Kaiser JA , et al.   Evaluation of abdominal trauma by computed tomography . Radiology . 1981;138:637–644
  20. Toombs BD , Lester RC , Ben-Menachem Y , et al.   Computed tomography in blunt trauma . Rad Clin North Am . 1981;19:17–35
  21. Gillette WJ . Surgery of liver . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1905;1:361–364
  22. Boljarski N . Uber Leberverletzungen in Klinischer und experimentellar hinsicht, unter besonder Berucksichtigung der Isolietern Netzplastik . Arch f Klin Chir . 1910;93:507–547
  23. Grey EG . Fibrin as a hemostatic agent in cerebral surgery . Surg Gyn Obstet . 1915;21:452–454
  24. Bailey OT , Ingraham FD . Human fibrin foam with thrombin as hemostatic agent in general surgery (experimental study and clinical use) . Surg . 1945;18:347–369
  25. Schroeder WE . The progress of liver hemastosis – report of uses (resections, sutures, etc) . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1906;2:52–61
  26. Pringle JH . Notes on the arrest of hemorrhage due to trauma . Ann Surg . 1908;48:546–566
  27. Madding GF , Lawrence KR , Kennedy PA . War wounds of liver . Bull US Army Med Dept . 1946;5:579–589
  28. Cohn R . The treatment of traumatic injuries of the liver . Stanford Med Bull . 1947;5:120–124
  29. Wright LT , Prigot A , Hill LM . Traumatic rupture of the liver without penetrating wounds . Arch Surg . 1947;54:613–632
  30. McAllister AJ , Hicken NF , Clark P . Practical problems in the treatment of hepatic trauma . Amer Surg . 1961;27:529–532
  31. McInnis WD , Richardson JD , Aust JB . Hepatic trauma . 1977;112:157–161
  32. Hellstrom G . Closed injury of the liver . Acta Chir Scand . 1961;122:490–501
  33. Pachter HL , Spencer FC , Hoffstetter SR , et al.   Experiences with the finger fracture technique to achieve intra-hepatic hemostasis in 75 patients with severe liver injuries . Ann Surg . 1983;197:771–778
  34. Lucas CE , Ledgerwood AM . Prospective evaluation of hemostatic techniques for liver injuries . J Trauma . 1976;16:442–451
  35. Feliciano DV , Mattox KL , Jordan GL , et al.   The management of 1000 consecutive cases of hepatic trauma . Ann Surg . 1988;204:438–495
  36. Trunkey DD , Shires GT , McClellan R . Management of liver trauma in 811 consecutive patients . Ann Surg . 1974;179:722–728
  37. Aaron WS , Fulton RL , Mays ET . Selective ligation of the hepatic artery for trauma of the liver . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1975;141:187–189
  38. Mays ET , Conti S , Fallahzadkh H , et al.   Hepatic artery ligation . Surgery . 1979;86:536–543
  39. Mays ET . Hepatic trauma . Curr Prob Surg . 1976;13:1–86
  40. Flint LM , Polk HC . Selective hepatic artery ligation (limitations and failures) . J Trauma . 1979;19:319–323
  41. Schrock T , Blaisdell FW , Mathewson C , et al.   Management of blunt trauma to the liver and hepatic veins . Arch Surg . 1968;96:698–704
  42. Moore FA , Moore EE , Seagraves A . Non-resectional management of major hepatic trauma . Amer J Surg . 1985;150:725–729
  43. Walt AJ . The mythology of hepatic trauma or babel revisited . Amer J Surg . 1978;135:1218
  44. Stone HH , Lamb JM . Use of pedicled omentum as an autogenous pack for control of hemorrhage in major injuries of the liver . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1975;141:92–94
  45. Lucas CE , Ledgerwood AM . Liver necrosis following hepatic artery transection due to trauma . Arch Surg . 1978;113:1107
  46. Clagett GP , Olsen WR . Non-mechanical hemorrhage in severe liver injury . Ann Surg . 1978;187:369–374
  47. Cogbill TH , Moore EE , Jurkovich GJ , et al.   Severe hepatic trauma (a multi-institutional experience with liver injuries) . J Trauma . 1988;28:1433–1438
  48. Beal SL . Fatal hepatic hemorrhage (an unresolved problem of complex liver injuries) . J Trauma . 1990;30:163–169
  49. Fabian TC , Croce MA , Stranford GG , et al.   Factors affecting morbidity from hepatic trauma . Ann Surg . 1981;213:540–548
  50. Ciresi KF , Lim RC . Hepatic vein and retrohepatic vena cava injury . World J Surg . 1990;14:472–477
  51. Rovito PF . Atrial caval shunting in blunt hepatic vascular injury . Ann Surg . 1987;205:318–321
  52. Burch JM , Feliciano DV , Mattox KL . The atriocaval shunt . Ann Surg . 1988;207:555–568
  53. Evans S , Jackson RJ , Smith SD . Successful repair of major retrohepatic vascular injuries without the use of shunt or sternotomy . J Pediatr Surg . 1993;28:317–320
  54. Bethea MC . A simplified approach to hepatic vein injuries . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1977;145:78–80
  55. Coln D , Crighton J , Schorn L . Successful management of hepatic vein injury from blunt trauma in children . Amer J Surg . 1980;140:858–864
  56. Pachter HL , Spencer FC , Hoffstetter SR . The management of juxtahepatic venous injuries without an atriocaval shunt (preliminary clinical observations) . Surgery . 1986;99:569–575
  57. Chen RJ , Fang JF , Lin BC , et al.   Surgical management of juxtahepatic venous injury . J Trauma . 1995;30:886–890
  58. Buechter KJ , Sereda D , Gomez G , et al.   Retrohepatic vein injuries (experience with 20 cases) . J Trauma . 1989;29:1698–1704
  59. Carrillo EH , Spain DA , Miller F , et al.   Intrahepatic vascular clamping in complex hepatic vein injuries . J Trauma . 1997;43:131–133
  60. Calne RY , McMaster P , Pentlow BD . The treatment of major liver trauma by primary packing with transfer of the patient for definitive treatment . Brit J Surg . 1979;66:338–339
  61. Feliciano DV , Mattox KL , Jordan GL . Intra-abdominal packing for control of hepatic hemorrhage (a reappraisal) . J Trauma . 1981;21:285–290
  62. Carmona RH , Peck D , Lim RC . The role of packing and re-operation in severe hepatic trauma . J Trauma . 1984;24:779–784
  63. Svoboda JA , Peter ET , Dang CV . Severe liver trauma in the face of coagulopathy (a case for packing and early re-exploration) . Amer J Surg . 1982;144:717–721
  64. Rotondo MF , Schwab CW , McGonigal MD , et al.   Damage control (an approach for improved survival in exsanguinating penetrating injury) . J Trauma . 1993;35:375–380
  65. Feliciano DV , Mattox KL , Burch JM , et al.   Packing for control of hepatic hemorrhage (58 consecutive patients) . J Trauma . 1986;26:738–743
  66. Cue JI , Cryer HG , Miller FB , et al.   Packing and planned re-exploration for hepatic and retroperitoneal hemorrhage critical refinements of a useful technique . J Trauma . 1990;30:1007–1014
  67. Caruso DM , Battistella FD , Owings JT , et al.   Perihepatic packing of major liver injuries . Arch Surg . 1999;134:958–963
  68. Pachter HL , Spencer FC , Hoffstetter JR , et al.   Significant trends in treatment of hepatic trauma . Ann Surg . 1992;216:492–502
  69. Garrison JR , Richardson JD , Hilakos AS , et al.   Predicting the need to pack early for severe injury-abdominal hemorrhage . J Trauma . 1996;40:923–929
  70. Brasel KJ , DeLisle CM , Olson CT , et al.   Trends in the management of hepatic injury . Am J Surg . 1987;174:674–677
  71. Ivatury RR , Nallathambi I , Gunduz Y , et al.   Liver packing for uncontrollable hemorrhage (a reappraisal) . J Trauma . 1986;26:744–753
  72. Baracco-Gandolfo V , Vidarte O , Baracco-Miller V . Prolonged closed liver packing in severe hepatic trauma (experience with 36 patients) . J Trauma . 1986;26:754–756
  73. Krige JET , Bornman PC , Terblanche J . Therapeutic perihepatic packing in complex liver trauma . Br J Surg . 1992;79:43–48
  74. Morris JA , Eddy VA , Blinman TA , et al.   The staged celiotomy for trauma (issues in unpacking and reconstruction) . Ann Surg . 1993;217:576–586
  75. Scalfani SJA , Shaftan GW , McAuley J , et al.   Interventional radiology in the management of hepatic trauma . J Trauma . 1984;24:256–262
  76. Ciraudo DL , Luk S , Palter M , et al.   Selective hepatic arterial embolization for Grade IV and V blunt hepatic injuries (An extension of resuscitation in the non-operative management of traumatic hepatic injuries) . J Trauma . 1998;45:353–359
  77. Velmahos GC , Demetriads D , Chattwan S , et al.   Angiographic embolization for arrest of bleeding after penetrating trauma to the abdomen . Am J Surg . 1999;178:367–373
  78. Wahl WL , Ahrns KS , Brandt MM , et al.   The need for early angiographic embolization in blunt liver injuries . J Trauma . 2002;52:1097–1101
  79. Mohr AM , Lavery RF , Barone A , et al.   Angiographic embolization for liver injuries (Low mortality, high morbidity) . J Trauma . 2003;55:1077–1082
  80. Takayasu K , Moriyama N , Nuramajsu Y , et al.   Gallbladder infarction after hepatic artery embolization . 1985;144:135–138
  81. Carrillo EH , Richardson JD . The current management of hepatic trauma . Adv Surg . 2001;35:39–59
  82. Johnson JW , Graciac VH , Gupta R , et al.   Hepatic angiography in patients undergoing damage control laparotomy . J Trauma . 2002;52:1102–1106
  83. Denton JR , Moore EE , Coldwell DM . Multimodality treatment for grade V hepatic injuries (perihepatic packing, arterial embolization and venous stenting) . J Trauma . 1997;42:964–967
  84. DeToma G , Mingoli A , Modini C , et al.   The value of angiography and selective hepatic artery embolization for continuous bleeding after surgery in liver trauma (case reports) . J Trauma . 1994;37:508–511
  85. Franklin RH , Bloom WI , Schoffstal RO . Angiographic embolization as a definite treatment post-traumatic hemobilia . J Trauma . 1980;20:702–705
  86. Hinton J . Injuries to abdominal viscera (their relative frequency and their management) . Ann Surg . 1926;90:351–356
  87. Richie JP , Fonkalsrud EN . Subcapsular hematoma of the liver . Arch Surg . 1972;104:781–784
  88. Karp MP , Cooney DR , Pros GA , et al.   The non-operative management of pediatric hepatic trauma . J Pediatr Surg . 1983;18:512–518
  89. Moore EE , Cogbill TH , Jurkovich GJ , et al.   Organ injury scaling (spleen and liver (1994 revision)) . J Trauma . 1995;38:323–324
  90. Knudson MM , Lim RC , Oakes DD , et al.   Non-operative management of blunt liver injuries in adults (the need for continued surveillance) . J Trauma . 1990;30:1494–1500
  91. Carrillo EH , Wohltmann C , Richardson JD , et al.   Evolution in the management of complex liver injuries . Curr Probl Surg . 2001;38:1–60
  92. Hiatt JR , Harrier HD , Koenig BV , et al.   Non-operative management of major blunt liver injury with hemo-peritoneum . Arch Surg . 1990;125:101–106
  93. Meyers AA , Crass RA , Lim RA , et al.   Selective non-operative management of blunt liver injury using computed tomography . Arch Surg . 1985;120:550–554
  94. Sherman HF , Savage BA , Jones LM , et al.   Non-operative management of blunt hepatic injury (safe at any grade) . J Trauma . 1994;37:616–621
  95. Rutledge R , Hunt JP , Lentz CW , et al.   A statewide population-based time-series analysis of the increasing frequency of non-operative management of abdominal solid organ injury . Ann Surg . 1995;222:311–326
  96. Hellins TE , Morse G , McNabney WK . Treatment of liver injuries at level I and II centers in a multi-institutional metropolitan trauma system . J Trauma . 1997;42:1091–1096
  97. Meredith JW , Young JS , Bowling J , et al.   Non-operative management of blunt hepatic trauma (the exception or the rule) . J Trauma . 1994;36:529–535
  98. Carrillo EH , Platz A , Miller FB , et al.   Non-operative management of blunt hepatic trauma . Br J Surg . 1998;85:461–468
  99. Croce MA , Fabian TC , Menke PG , et al.   Non-operative management of blunt hepatic trauma is the treatment of choice for hemodynamically stable patients . Ann Surg . 1995;221:744–755
  100. Pachter HL , Knudson MM , Esrig B , et al.   Status of non-operative management of blunt hepatic injuries in 1995 (A multi-center experience with 404 patients) . J Trauma . 1996;40:31–38
  101. Richardson JD , Franklin GA , Lukan JK , et al.   Evolution in the management of hepatic trauma (a 25-year perspective) . Ann Surg . 2000;232:324–330
  102. Marx JA , Moore EE , Jordan RC , et al.   Limitations of computed tomography in the evaluation of acute abdominal trauma—prospective randomized study . J Trauma . 1985;25:933–938
  103. Buckman RF , Piano G , Dunham CM , et al.   Major bowel and diaphragmatic injuries associated with blunt spleen or liver rupture . J Trauma . 1988;28:1317–1321
  104. Fischer RP , Miller-Crotchet P , Reed RL . The hazards of non-operative management of adults with blunt abdominal injury . J Trauma . 1988;28:1445–1449
  105. Kemmeter PR , Hoedema RE , Foote JA , et al.   Concomitant blunt enteric injuries with injuries of the liver and spleen (a dilemma for trauma surgeons) . Am Surg . 2001;267:221–226
  106. Sherk JP , Oakes DD . Intestinal injuries missed by computed tomography . J Trauma . 1990;30:1–7
  107. Carrillo EH , Richardson JD . Delayed surgery and interventional procedures in complex liver injuries . J Trauma . 1999;46:978–979
  108. Carrillo EH , Spain DA , Wolhtmann CD , et al.   Interventional techniques are useful adjuncts in nonoperative management of hepatic injuries . J Trauma . 1999;46:619–624
  109. Ackerman NB , Sillin LF , Suresh K . Consequences of intraperitoneal bile (bile ascites versus bile peritonitis) . Am J Surg . 1985;149:244–248
  110. Allins A , Ho T , Nguyen TH , et al.   Limited value of routine follow-up CT scans in non-operative management of blunt liver and splenic injury . Am Surg . 1996;62:883–886
  111. Demetriades D , Gomez H , Chahwan S , et al.   Gunshot wounds to the liver (the role of selective nonoperative management) . J Am Coll Surg . 1998;188:343–348
  112. Moore EG . When is nonoperative management of a gunshot wound to the liver appropriate (editorial)? . J Am Coll Surg . 1998;188:427–428
  113. Renz BM , Feliciano DV . Gunshot wounds to the right thoracoabdomen (A retrospective study of non-operative management) . J Trauma . 1994;37:732–740
  114. Edler L . Die traumatischen verletzungen der parenchymatasen Unterleibsergane . Arch f Klin Chir . 1987;34:343–356
  115. Thole FWH . Verletzungen der Leber und der Gallenwege . Neve Deutsch Chirurgie . 1912;4:218
  116. Tilton BJ . Consideration regarding wounds of the liver . Ann Surg . 1905;98:27–41
  117. Hitzrot JM . Subcutaneous injuries of the liver . Ann Surg . 1917;60:50–55
  118. Fraenkel F . Subcutaneous rupture of the liver – management by primary laparotomy . Beitr Z Klin Chir . 1901;30:418–499
  119. Thorlakson PHT , Hay AWS . Rupture of the liver . Canad Med J . 1929;20:593–595
  120. Knudson MM , Lim RC , Olcott CW . Morbidity and mortality following major penetrating liver injuries . Arch Surg . 1994;129:256–261
  121. Federico JA , Horner WR , Clark DG , et al.   Blunt hepatic trauma . Arch Surg . 1990;125:905–909
  122. Chen RJ , Frang JF , Lin BC , et al.   Factors that influence the operative mortality after blunt hepatic injuries . Eur J Surg . 1995;161:811–817
  123. Sanders GB , Macguire CH . Massive rupture of the liver . Amer J Surg . 1949;78:699–704
  124. Cachecho R , Clas D , Gerskin K , et al.   Evolution in the management of complex liver injury at a Level I trauma center . J Trauma . 1998;45:79–82
  125. Pachter HL , Feliciano DV . Complex hepatic injury . Surg Clin North Am . 1996;76:763–783
  126. Cogbill TH , Moore EE , Jurkovich GJ , et al.   Severe hepatic trauma (a multi-center experience with 1335 liver injuries) . J Trauma . 1988;28:1433–1438
  127. Asensio JA , Demetriades D , Chahwan S , et al.   Approach to the management of complex hepatic injuries . J Trauma . 2000;48:66–69
  128. Menegaux F , Langlois P , Chigot JP . Severe blunt trauma of the liver (study of mortality factors) . J Trauma . 1993;35:865–869
  129. Pugh HL . Splenectomy with special reference to its historical background . Internet Abstr Surg . 1946;83:209–224
  130. Byrne RV . Splenectomy for traumatic rupture with intra-abdominal hemorrhage . Arch Surg . 1950;61:263–268
  131. Averbook BD , Pearson S . Traumatic rupture of the spleen . Am Surg . 1959;25:900–903
  132. Cloutier LC , Zaepfel FM . Traumatic rupture of the spleen . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1958;107:749–756
  133. Terry JH , Self MM , Howard JM . Injuries of the spleen; report of the 102 patients and review of literature . Surgery . 1956;40:615–622
  134. Bollinger JA , Fowler EF . Traumatic rupture of the spleen, with special reference to delayed splenic rupture . Am J Surg . 1956;91:561–570
  135. Parsons L , Thompson JE . Traumatic rupture of the spleen from non-penetrating injuries . Ann Surg . 1958;147:214–220
  136. Economy D , Koucky C , Novack RL . Non-penetrating injuries to the spleen . Am J Surg . 1960;99:646–650
  137. Iung OS , Cammack KV , Dodds M , et al.   Traumatic rupture of the spleen . Am J Surg . 1961;101:357–365
  138. Knopp LM , Harkins HN . Traumatic rupture of the normal spleen . Surgery . 1954;35:493–500
  139. Dennehy T , Lamphier TA , Wickman W , et al.   Traumatic rupture of the normal spleen . Am J Surg . 1961;102:58–64
  140. Fultz CT , Altemeier WA . Delayed rupture of the spleen after trauma . Surg . 1955;38:414–422
  141. Bailey HA , Schreiber SL . Delayed rupture of the spleen . Am J Surg . 1944;66:4–14
  142. Fey DW , Turaw IL . Traumatic rupture of normal spleen with delayed rupture . Am J Surg . 1941;53:363–366
  143. Farhat GA , Abdu RA , Vanek VW . Delayed splenic rupture (real or imaginary?) . Am Surg . 1992;58:340–345
  144. Kluger Y , Paul DB , Raves JJ , et al.   Delayed rupture of the spleen–-myths, facts, and their importance. Case report and literature review . J Trauma . 1994;36:568–571
  145. Zabinski EJ , Harkins HH . Delayed splenic rupture–-a clinical syndrome following trauma . Arch Surg . 1923;76:186–213
  146. Morris DH , Bullock FD . The importance of the spleen in the resistance to infection . Ann Surg . 1919;70:153–158
  147. King H , Shumacker HB . Splenic studies (susceptibility to infection after splenectomy performed in infancy) . Ann Surg . 1952;136:239–242
  148. Singer DB . Post-splenectomy sepsis . Perspectives in Ped Path . 1973;1:285–311
  149. Eraklis AJ , Filler RM . Splenectomy in childhood (a review of 1413 cases) . J Pediatr Surg . 1972;4:382–388
  150. Horan M , Colebatch JH . Relation between splenectomy and subsequent infection . Arch Dis Child . 1962;37:398–414
  151. Luna GK , Dellinger EP . Nonoperative observations therapy for splenic injury (a safe therapeutic option?) . Am J Surg . 1987;153:462–468
  152. Cullingford GL , Watkins DN , Watts AD , et al.   Severe late post-splenectomy infection . Br J Surg . 1991;78:716–721
  153. Huntley CC . Infection following splenectomy in infants and children. A review of the experience at Duke Hospital in infants and children during a 22-year period (1933–1954) . Am J Dis Child . 1958;95:477–481
  154. Horn M , Colebatch JH . Relation between splenectomy and subsequent infections (a clinical study) . Arch Dis Child . 1962;37:398–415
  155. Whitaker AN . Infection and the spleen (association between hyposplenism pneumonococcal infection, and disseminated intravascular coagulation) . Med J Aust . 1969;1:1213–1219
  156. O’Neal BJ , McDonald FC . The risk of sepsis in the asplenic adult . Ann Surg . 1981;194:775–778
  157. Green JB , Shackford SR , Sise MJ , et al.   Late septic complications in adults following splenectomy for trauma (a prospective analysis in 144 patients) . J Trauma . 1986;26:999–1004
  158. Gopal V , Bisno AL . Fulminant pneumococcal infections in normal splenic hosts . Arch Intern Med . 1977;137:1526–1530
  159. Leonard AS . The overwhelming post-splenectomy sepsis problem . World J Surg . 1980;4:423–432
  160. Standage BA , Goss JC . Outcome and sepsis after splenectomy in adults . Am J Surg . 1982;143:545–548
  161. Schwartz PE , Sterioff S , Mucha P , et al.   Post-splenectomy sepsis and mortality in adults . JAMA . 1982;248:2279–2284
  162. Waghorn DJ . Overwhelming infection in asplenic patients (current best practice preventive measures are not being followed) . J Clin Path . 2001;54:214–218
  163. DiCataldo A , Puelo S , LiDestri G , et al.   Splenic trauma and overwhelming post-splenectomy infection . Br J Surg . 1987;74:343–345
  164. Pachter HL , Spencer FC , Hoffstetter SR , et al.   Experiences with selective operative and nonoperative treatment of splenic injuries in 193 patients . Ann Surg . 1989;211:583–591
  165. Zarrabi NH , Rosner F . Serious infection in adults following splenectomy for trauma . Arch Intern Med . 1984;144:1421–1424
  166. Linet MS , Nyren O , Gridley G , et al.   Cases of death among patients surviving at least one year following splenectomy . Am J Surg . 1996;172:320–323
  167. Pimpl E , Dapaunt O , Kaindl H , et al.   Incidence of thromboembolic-related deaths after splenectomy in adults . Br J Surg . 1989;76:517–521
  168. Bond SJ , Eichelberger MR , Gotschall CS , et al.   Nonoperative management of blunt hepatic and splenic injury in children . Ann Surg . 1996;223:286–289
  169. Pearl RH , Wesson PE , Spence LJ , et al.   Splenic injury (a 5-year update with improved results and changes for conservative management) . J Ped Surg . 1989;24:428–431
  170. Powell M , Courcoulas A , Gardner M , et al.   Management of blunt splenic trauma (significant differences between adults and children) . Surgery . 1997;122:654–660
  171. Kakkasseril JB , Steward D , Cox JA , et al.   Changing management of pediatric splenic trauma . Arch Surg . 1982;117:758–759
  172. Cooney DR , Swanson SE , Dearth JE , et al.   Splenic auto-transplantation in prevention of overwhelming post-splenectomy infection . J Pediatric Surg . 1979;14:336–342
  173. Vega A , Howell C , Krasna I , et al.   Splenic autotransplantation (optimal functional factors) . J Pediatr Surg . 1981;16:898–904
  174. Moore GE , Stevens RE , Moore EE , et al.   Failure of splenic implants to protect against fatal post-splenectomy infection . Am J Surg . 1983;146:413–414
  175. Traub A , Giebnik GS , Smith C , et al.   Splenic reticuloendothelial function after splenectomy, spleen repair and splenic autotransplantation . N Engl J Med . 1987;317:1559–1564
  176. Mayo WJ . Principles underlying surgery of the spleen, with a report of ten splenectomies . JAMA . 1910;54:14–18
  177. Feliciano DV , Bitondo CG , Mattox KL , et al.   A four year experience with splenectomy versus splenorrhaphy . Ann Surg . 1985;201:568–575
  178. Beal SL , Spisso JM . The risk of splenorrhaphy . Arch Surg . 1988;123:1158–1163
  179. Whitesell FB . A clinical and surgical anatomic study of rupture of the spleen due to blunt trauma . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1960;110:750–754
  180. Malangoni MA , Levine AW , Droege EA , et al.   Management of injury to the spleen in adults (results of early operation and observation) . Ann Surg . 1984;200:702–705
  181. Delaney HM , Porreca F , Mitsudo S , et al.   Splenic capping (an experimental study of a new technique for splenorrhaphy using woven polyglycolic acid mesh) . Ann Surg . 1982;196:187–193
  182. King DR , Lobe TE , Haase GM , et al.   Selective management of injured spleen . Surgery . 1981;90:677–682
  183. Delaney HM , Rudavsky AZ , Lan S . Preliminary clinical experience with the use of absorbable mesh splenorrhaphy . J Trauma . 1985;25:909–913
  184. Mooney DP , Forbes PW . Variation in the management of pediatric splenic injuries in New England . J Trauma . 2004;56:328–333
  185. Wholey MH , Chamorro HA , Rao G , et al.   Splenic infection and spontaneous rupture of the spleen after therapeutic embolization . Cardiovasc Radiol . 1978;1:249–253
  186. Mozes MF , Spigos DG , Pollak R , et al.   Partial splenic embolization, an alternative to splenectomy. Results of a prospective, randomized study . Surgery . 1984;96:694–702
  187. Scalfani SJA , Shaftan GW , Scalea TM , et al.   Nonoperative salvage of computed tomography-diagnosed splenic injuries (utilization of angiography for triage and embolization for hemostasis) . J Trauma . 1995;38:818–825
  188. Haan JM , Biffl W , Knudson MM , et al.   Splenic embolization revisited (a multicenter review) . J Trauma . 2004;56:542–547
  189. Davis KA , Fabian TC , Croce MA , et al.   Improved success in nonoperative management of blunt splenic injuries (embolization of splenic artery pseudoaneurysms) . J Trauma . 1998;44:1008–1015
  190. Haan JM , Scott J , Boyd-Kranis RL , et al.   Admission angiography for blunt splenic injury (advantages and pitfalls) . J Trauma . 2001;51:1161–1165
  191. Salis A , Pais O , Scalea T , et al.   Superselective embolization of a traumatic intra-splenic arteriovenous fistula . J Trauma . 1999;46:186–188
  192. Hagiwara A , Yukioka M , Ohra S , et al.   Nonsurgical management of patients with blunt splenic injury (efficacy of transcatheter arterial embolization) . Am J Roentgenol . 1996;167:151–166
  193. Dent D , Alsabrook G , Erickson BA , et al.   Blunt splenic injury (high nonoperative management rates can be achieved with selective embolization) . J Trauma . 2004;56:1063–1067
  194. Longo WE , Baker CC , McMillen MA , et al.   Nonoperative management of adult blunt splenic trauma–-criteria for successful outcome . Ann Surg . 1989;211:626–629
  195. Cogbill TH , Moore EE , Jurkovich GJ , et al.   Nonoperative management of blunt splenic trauma (a multicenter experience) . J Trauma . 1989;29:1312–1317
  196. Godley CD , Warren RL , Sheridan FL , et al.   Nonoperative management of blunt splenic injury in adults (age over 55 years as a powerful predictor of failure) . J Am Coll Surg . 1996;183:133–139
  197. Barone JE , Burns G , Svehlak SA , et al.   Management of blunt splenic trauma in patients older than 55 years . J Trauma . 1999;46:87–90
  198. Cocanour CS , Moore FA , Ware ON , et al.   Age should not be a determinant for nonoperative management of blunt splenic injuries . J Trauma . 2000;48:606–612
  199. Bee TK , Croce MA , Miller PR , et al.   Failure of splenic nonoperative management (is the glass half empty or half full?) . J Trauma . 2001;50:230–236
  200. Peitzman AB , Heil B , Rivera L , et al.   Blunt splenic injury in adults (a multi-institutional study of Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma) . J Trauma . 2000;49:177–189
  201. Shackford SR , Molina M . Management of splenic injuries . Surg Clin North Am . 1990;70:595–620
  202. Jalovec LM , Boe BS , Wyffels PL , et al.   The advantage of early operation with splenorrhaphy versus nonoperative management for the blunt splenic trauma patient . Am Surg . 1993;59:698–705
  203. Schweizer W , Bohlen L , Dennison A , et al.   Prospective study in adults of splenic preservation after traumatic rupture . Br J Surg . 1992;79:1330–1333
  204. Mucha P , Daly RC , Farnell MB . Selective management of blunt splenic trauma . J Trauma . 1986;26:970–979
  205. Malangoni MA , Cue JI , Fallat ME , et al.   Evaluation of splenic injury by computed tomography and its impact on treatment . Ann Surg . 1990;211:592–599
  206. Brasel KL , DeLisle CM , Olson CJ , et al.   Splenic injuries (trends in evaluation and management) . J Trauma . 1998;44:283–286
  207. Pachter HL , Guth AA , Hofstetter SR , et al.   Changing patterns in the management of splenic trauma . Ann Surg . 1998;227:708–719
  208. Konstantakos AK , Barnoski AL , Plaisier BR , et al.   Optimizing the management of blunt splenic injury in adults and children . Surgery . 1999;126:805–813
  209. Zucker KA . Nonoperative of adult blunt splenic trauma (criteria for successful management) . Ann Surg . 1989;210:626–629
  210. Nix JA , Costanza M , Daley BJ , et al.   Outcome of the current management of splenic injuries . J Trauma . 2001;50:835–842
  211. Smith SJ , Cooney RN , Mucha P . Nonoperative management of the ruptured spleen (a revalidation of criteria) . Surgery . 1996;120:745–751
  212. Lucas CE . Splenic trauma (choice of management) . Ann Surg . 1991;213:98–112
  213. Koury HI , Peschiera JL , Welling RE . Non-operative management of blunt splenic trauma (a 10-year experience) . Injury . 1991;22:349–352
  214. Cathy KL , Brady JS . Blunt splenic trauma characteristics of patients requiring urgent laparotomy . Am Surg . 1998;64:450–454
  215. Sartorelli KH , Frumiento C , Rogers FB , et al.   Nonoperative management of hepatic splenic and renal injuries in adults with multiple injuries . J Trauma . 2000;49:56–62
  216. Myers JG , Dent DL , Stewart RM , et al.   Blunt splenic injuries (dedicated trauma surgeons can achieve a high rate of nonoperative success in patients of all ages) . J Trauma . 2000;48:801–806
  217. Morgenstern L , Uyeda RY . Non-operative management of injuries to the spleen in adults . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1983;157:513–518
  218. Harbrecht BG , Peitzman AB , Rivera L , et al.   Contribution of age and gender to outcome of blunt splenic injury in adults (multicenter study of the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma) . J Trauma . 2001;51:887–895
  219. Schurr MJ , Fabian TC , Gauant M , et al.   Management of blunt splenic trauma (computed tomographic contrast blush predicts failure of nonoperative management) . J Trauma . 1995;39:507–513
  220. Federle MP , Courcoulas AP , Powell M , et al.   Blunt splenic injury in adults (clinical and CT criteria for management, with emphasis on active extravasation) . Radiology . 1998;206:137–142
  221. Omert LA , Salyer D , Dunham CM , et al.   Implications of the “contrast blush” finding on computed tomographic scan of the spleen in trauma . J Trauma . 2001;51:272–278
  222. Digiacoma JC , McGonigal MD , Haskal ZJ , et al.   Arterial bleeding diagnosed by CT in hemodynamically stable victims of blunt trauma . J Trauma . 1996;40:249–252
  223. Barquist ES , Pizano LR , Feuer W , et al.   Inter- and intra-rater reliability in computed axial tomographic grading of splenic injury (why so many grading scales) . J Trauma . 2004;56:334–338
  224. Buxton JT . Traumatic rupture of the spleen . Am J Surg . 1922;36:312–316
  225. Foster JM , Prey D . Rupture of the spleen (an analysis of twenty cases) . Am J Surg . 1940;47:487–492
  226. Mansfield RD . Traumatic rupture of the normal spleen . Am J Surg . 1955;89:759–768
  227. Donhauser JL , Locke DJ . Traumatic rupture of the spleen . Arch Surg . 1960;153:1013–1018
  228. Foster JN , Prey D . Rupture of the spleen. An analysis of twenty cases . Am J Surg . 1940;47:487–492
  229. Nallathambi MN , Ivatury RR , Wapnir I , et al.   Non-operative management versus early operation for blunt splenic trauma in adults . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1988;166:252–258

PII: S1072-7515(04)01408-5

doi: 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2004.11.005

Journal of the American College of Surgeons
Volume 200, Issue 5 , Pages 648-669 , May 2005

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution